'Bamoralism' - How Destructive Was It?

[McBeaty]

Disappearing pastoral life is a FACT of life...I conceed.

That does not, I think, make my comments about the REASON for this disappearance any less valid though.

Primarily, IMHO, pastoral life in Scotland (and Wales and Ireland) was changed in the main by the industrial revolution based originally in the south, most notabley the major English cities. I didn't mean this as a 'conspiracy' theory - just a fact of life (or history).

The industrial Revolution saw a explosion in requirements of both raw materials and FOODSTUFFS to support the growing working class that were migrating from the country to the cities...

Eventully this process would include cities in Scotland, Wales and Ireland as well...

But the fact is, IMO, that this change in pastoral to industrialisation was kick-started by England's wars with France, and her need to expand the empire.

Histroiacally we see much the same changes in the way a nation is organised for the efficiency of expansion in both the Roman Empire and the Third Reich.

EFFICIENCY of supply to match demand was a key strategy for growth...Often at the expense of more traditional, pastoral ways of life.

(It wasn't altogether a 'knock' at the English...Just for a change!)

Even today we can see this process STILL at work, with the 'North South Divide' - where the south of England is still the chief instigator and benificiary of supply and demand culture.

Hence the growth of Regionalism, and the foundation of devolution campaign parties like the Campaign for Yorkshire & Humberside - which seeks to gain devolved control of these English counties to ensure the protected rights of industry and culture in these regions.

Pastoral life, however, STILL does exist. And inded there is a train of thought that suggests that there is still much we can learn from this way of life to make our modern lives better. Note the movement towards organic foods, protection of the green belt, reinvestment in 'traditional' industries and the revitalisation of older national features like the water-ways.

Crofting and croft industries in Scotland has seen an influx in investment, also both the fishing industries and hill farming is seeking a 'protected' status and renewed government status and investment.

There is also a rekindeled interest in traditional folk culture and a renewed focus on spirituality.

Celtic folk crafts and arts are seeing something of a rennaisance, and even the Gaelic is making a (limited) come-back, with classes springing up in every major Scottish population area.

This is not to say that this 'fixes' all the damage done by decades and decades of English cultural (ethnic) supression, but it does show a parrallel increase of the Celtic ability for EXPRESSION as the English institutional contraol gradually diminishes.

Today accents are 'in' - Counties are 'in' (with many defunct or abolished traditional counties being reformed) - and decentralisation is 'in' (to a certain extent)...

As to how this all links back to Bamoralism, well I think that at the heart of Bamoralism (or 'Highland Romantasism') was the wish to replace a reality with an idea...Unfortunately the 'idea' was one which happened to suit the English/'British' institution of the time (especially with the need to form ever more new Highland regiments).

It propounded 'a' identity for Scots with very little REAL substance, in the attempt to formulate a spirit de corp WITHOUT actually rekindeling a cohesive NATIONALISTIC expression.

Yes we were allowed to wear Highland gard again, but it was very firmly UNDER the Union Jack.

This same process was repeated all over the Empire, with native regiments being formed wearing traditional costume - but usually at the EXPENSE of cultural and national freedom (again, both the Romans and the Nazis employed the same tacctic).

The intention was to CONFUSE native groupings into feeling they still retained a national identity, when at the same time thier nations were all the time being absored into the Empire, and 'anglofied'.

India is a prime example of this process (and I think it is no accident that Hitler spoke of the English Empire in India as a 'good' example of how his empire would be formed).

[This message has been edited by McBeaty (edited 24 August 2000).]

[CeolMhor]

Sorry about the excessive length here, but I happened to have written a school paper on just this subject. The situation at the time was more complex than just the fashion fads of the day. Here's what I found caused the surge in adoration of the Highlands:

In the years between the failure of the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion in Scotland and the Crimean War, the English view of the Scottish Highlanders underwent a dramatic shift. What could have caused such a change? It is astounding, having seen the attitudes of the 1750s and 1820s-1850s that they are thinking of the same Scottish Highlands. Take, for example, the view expressed by Edmund Bruce (a government agent who visited the highlands to gather information on the political situation there) in 1750. He wrote that:
"...great numbers of the Keppoch, Glengarry, and Clanranald Families, tho’ not worth a Shilling, would be ashamed to be seen at any Kind of Labour tho’ they think it no Shame to Steal or go through the Country asking assistance of their Neighbours (which they call thigging) or living upon free Quarters wherever they happen to be, and they Reckon it an Honour to other people that they should be entertained by them."
And yet, by the early 1800s, such an opinion of the Highlanders was nowhere to be seen. In August of 1822, King George IV visited Edinburgh (as the first English king to set foot in Scotland since Charles II in 1651) and, dressed in kilt, plaid, bonnet, and tartan coat, called for a toast to the clans and chieftains of Scotland at a dinner in Edinburgh Castle . Seeing such evidence, one question comes immediately to mind – what could cause such a dramatic reversal of thought in a mere 80 years? In searching out the answer to this question, it will become clear that there were simultaneous changes in several different areas. The major areas are the English military, the Romantic period in European literature, and the economic situation in the British Isles.

Background
The Highlands of Scotland had been isolated from the rest of the world for nearly all of their history, as a result of the rough terrain, lack of roads, and general antipathy associated with the region. Back as far as the glory days of the Roman Empire the Scottish Highlanders had been the realm of barbarians and savages. The Roman view of the area remained very nearly unchanged for centuries, and prudent Englishmen did associate themselves with the Highlands. As a result, the area remained successfully isolated from the rest of the world. The situation changed abruptly in the first half of the 18th century. The first major event was in 1707, when the Act of Union made Scotland and England one integrated nation. Quite suddenly, the Highlands came under English law. In futile attempts to place the Stuarts (the Scottish royal family) on the English throne (and restore their old way of life without the English) the Scots rebelled first in 1715 and again in 1745. The 1715 rising was quelled without difficulty, but the army raised in 1745 came within only a few dozen miles of London before turning back. England was shocked by their narrow escape, and the consequences for the Highlanders were immediate and severe. They began even as the Prince Charles’ army was defeated at the Battle of Culloden Moor. In 1746, the Disarming Act was passed. It is an excellent illustration of the English fear of the Highlanders who had so nearly sacked their capitol. The Act administered the following oath to all Highlanders:
"I, A B do swear, and as I shall answer to God at the great day of Judgment, I have not, nor shall have, in my possession any gun, sword, pistol, or arm whatever, and never use tartan, plaid or any part of the Highland garb; and if I do so, may I be cursed in my undertakings, family and property – may I never see my wife and children, father, mother or relations – may I be killed in battle as a coward, and lie without Christian burial in a strange land, far from the graves of my forefathers and kindred; may all this come across me if I break my oath."
The penalty for any man or boy wearing a part of the forbidden Highland garb was (on the first offense) six months imprisonment, and for the second offense, transportation for seven years . Thus was the attitude of England in the aftermath of the rebellion – yet within only a few decades, a great tartan fashion fad would engulf England.

The Military
As early as 1738, Duncan Forbes of Culloden (a member of Parliament, Lord Advocate, and successful businessman) had suggested channeling the warlike tendencies of the Highlanders to a useful end by enlisting them into the English army. His idea was not acted upon (with the exception of the creation of the Black Watch regiment in 1740) until war in North America seemed imminent in 1756. Between then and 1800, 20 regiments of Highlanders were formed (including several of emigrant Scots in Canada) , first to fight the French (in the Seven Years War), then the Americans (in the American Revolution). They went on to fight in all corners of the British Empire, including Crimea, India, Afghanistan, and the Napoleonic campaigns. These regiments had a vital effect in changing the opinions of England, for they fought with distinction nearly everywhere they were in battle, and this was widely recognized. To quote William Pitt speaking to Parliament (in 1766):
"I sought for merit wherever it was to be found and it is my boast that I was the first minister who looked for it and found it in the mountains of the north. I called it forth and drew into your service a hardy and intrepid race of men, who when left by your jealousy became a prey to the artifice of your enemies, and had gone nigh to have overturned the State in the war before the last. These men in the last war were brought to combat on your side; they served with fidelity as they fought with valor, and conquered for you in every part of the world."
One can see in this quote that Pitt had found a way as early as 1766 to forgive the Highlanders for the 1745 Rebellion. When he refers to the Highlanders becoming a “prey to the artifice of your enemies,” he is speaking of the French. France and Scotland had an alliance dating back centuries, and every time Scotland attacked England, it was with the support (and often tangible assistance) of the French. So, Pitt decided to make France the enemy, and the Highlanders simply innocent victims to be helped. After all, the Highland regiments had just been of great assistance to England in defeating the French in America. Thus we can see the start of a reversal of opinion of the Highlanders. As the Highland regiments distinguished themselves in more and more battles, this opinion of Pitt’s became more and more widespread, and the recruiting of Highlanders increased. The Isle of Skye alone, between 1797 and 1837, provided the British Army 21 lieutenant- and major-generals, 48 lieutenant-colonels, 600 majors, captains, and subalterns, 120 pipers, and 10,000 soldiers and NCOs . An American officer observed the conduct of the 93rd Sutherlanders at the Battle of New Orleans (on January 8, 1815) and described it thus: “Whatever was the name of that regiment they were the most surprising instance of cool determined bravery and undaunted courage I have ever heard of, standing in the midst of a most destructive fire, firm and immovable as a brick wall.”
Stories like this one made their way back to England, and the respect for the Highland soldier continuously grew. Another trait that was of great importance in the Highland troops gaining respect was their discipline. While the view (and reality) of the time was that brutal corporal punishment was the only way of maintaining discipline among troops, Highland units were exceptions. The Highlanders found corporal punishment very offensive, and could be kept in line with only the threat that any offender’s name would be reported back to his village. Physical punishments were virtually non-existent in the Highland regiments . The reputation of the Highland troops arguably reached its peak during the Crimean War. In fact, the 93rd Highlanders are still remembered as “The Thin Red Line” that broke a Russian cavalry charge at Balaklava during the Crimean War.

Literature and Romanticism
The frenzy of attention that the Jacobite Rebellion brought to the Highlands led to an intense debate about the ancient roots of the Gaels. This began in earnest as soon as 1760, only 15 years after the rebellion. It was then that James MacPherson, a schoolmaster from Badenoch published Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland and translated from the Gaelic or Erse Language. He claimed that the works he had collected were the remains of epic poetry by the third-century bard Ossian. His book sold very well, and after a trip back through the Highlands (accompanied by two Gaelic scholars), he published in 1762 and 1763 Fingal (an epic in six volumes) and Temora. The publication started a controversy that continues to this day. MacPherson’s major detractors were Dr. Samuel Johnson and Malcolm Laing, who denounced Macpherson as “one of the finest literary imposters of our time,” and his book as “a patchwork of plagiarism.” Johnson’s arguments against the validity of the poetry were twofold: first that no original Gaelic manuscripts could have existed, and secondly that Gaelic was far too barbaric a language to possibly be poetic . Having published a work defending the Highlanders a mere 15 years after they attempted to overthrow the crown, such criticism is to be expected, and Johnson serves as a splendid example of how the antipathy towards the Highlanders extended to an intellectual level.
The controversy continued, and a book supporting MacPherson was published by John and Hugh MacCallum (with the support of scholars including Ewen MacLachlan of Aberdeen University), and in 1783 MacPherson published the original Gaelic poems. Finally, in 1805, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Edinburgh appointed a committee to investigate the authenticity of the poetry. Their conclusion announced that ancient poetry did exist in the Highlands, and “…that it was common, general and in great abundance; that it was of a most impressive and striking sort, in a high degree eloquent, tender, and sublime…” . They also concluded that MacPherson (who had died in 1796 ) had altered, enlarged, elaborated, omitted and in general changed compositions to fit with his views.
The true authenticity of Ossian (or the lack thereof) is really quite unimportant to this inquiry. What are worthy of note are both the great controversy generated and the official conclusion. For, as early as 1773 (the year Johnson published his refutation of Ossian) there was a heated debate, which required (and had) a large and intellectually respectable side supporting the Highland culture and history. By 1805, that support had spread to officialdom, as indicated by the official investigation of the matter.
About this same time period, literature focussing on the Highlands became more and more common. This literature took two forms – historical and geographical. Prior to the 1715 Jacobite rising, the Highlands were very nearly inaccessible for lack of roads, and it was not until after the rebellion of 1745 that most of the country could be accessed by road. Also, many of the schemes for improving the Highlands (during the late 1700s) and providing work for the Highlanders involved the building of canals and railways, as well as roads. This new ease of access allowed a new flood of tourists into the Highlands, many of whom published their experiences upon their return to England. They include Observations relative chiefly to picturesque beauty, made in the year 1776 on several parts of Great Britain , particularly the High-lands of Scotland (by William Gilpin, 1792) , A Companion to the Beauties of Scotland (by Sarah Murray, 1799) , A Voyage Round Great Britain (by William Daniell, 1813) . These publications led to the Highlands becoming known as a place of great wild beauty. As English poet laureate Robert Southney described Ballachulish in 1819:
"The evening was glorious. To the west the Linnhe Loch lay before us, bounded by the mountains, which are of the finest outline, there is a dip somewhat resembling a pointed arch inverted; and just behind that dip the sun, which had not been visible during the day, sunk in serene beauty, without a cloud; first with a saffron, then with a rosey light, which imbued the mountains, and was reflected upon the still water up to the very shore beneath the window at which we stood, delighted in beholding it. The effect was such that I could almost have wished I were a believer in Ossian."
It was also at this time that writers like Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott were publishing their poems, stories, and songs about the Highlands. Many of these contributed to the influx of visitors to the Highlands, including Scott’s Lady of the Lake (published in 1810, it glamorized Loch Katrine, which quickly overshadowed Loch Lomond as a prime tourist destination), and Lord of the Isles (which put the Isle of Skye onto the map for tourists, so to speak) . As Scott commented in 1810, “Every London citizen makes Loch Lomond his washpot and throws his shoe over Ben Nevis [the highest mountain in Scotland].”
Meanwhile, other writings were changing the popular view of Jacobitism. While the Jacobites had been seen in 1745 as traitors, rebels, and agents of all that would be detrimental to England, by the early 1800s they were seen as romantic folk heroes. The most influential instrument of this change was Sir Walter Scott’s novel Waverly. In it, Scott started the association of Jacobitism not with the attempt to overthrow the king, but with chiefs, clansmen, and tartan . As one Victorian said about the results of Scott’s novel, “…the whole nation…went over the water [ie to France, where Charles was] to Charlie.”

Economics
At the time of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, the Highlands and their occupants were not seen as being productive members of society. Of course, from an English perspective, they were not a productive society. Most Scots at that time were living on subsistence farming, and their lack of modern methods and industry was seen as proof of their barbarity. However, many saw the Highlanders as a race which could be helped to achieve modern standards of infrastructure, agriculture, and industry. This idea was related to the Romantics’ interest in the Highlands. A wave of Improvers swept across the country, with questionable results. One school of thought was to help the Highlanders themselves, as illustrated by the Reverend Dr. John Walker’s report on the Hebrides in 1764:
"The Soil remains, as it was at the time of Creation: The Inhabitants, when compared to their fellow Subjects, with Respect to Arts, are in almost the same Situation as in the Days of Oscian [Ossian], yet they are Countries capable of being greatly advanced by Agriculture; capable of many of the most important Species of Manufacture: possessed of the most valuable Fisheries in Europe: and inhabited by a sensible, hardy, and laborious Race of People."
Walker’s report was given to the Commissioners of Annexed Estates (Annexed Estates refer to the fact that the land of any clan chief who rose for Charles in 1745 were confiscated by the government). He is telling the Commissioners how best to improve the land they have acquired. While Walker’s proposals are based on using the inhabitants of the land to improve it, this was not a method accepted by all other Improvers.
The second, and far more infamous school of thought was based solely on money, and it had a great effect on the social acceptance of the Highlanders. The man who first came up with the idea was Sir John Sinclair of Ulbster. To do justice to him, it is important to note that he had no intention of promoting mass evictions, and became exceedingly bitter about the whole affair once it became clear that the Highlanders themselves were suffering greatly with the introduction of the Cheviot sheep. Sinclair’s description of the sheep-herding frenzy that took hold of many a Laird was:
"The first thing that is done is to drive away all the present inhabitants. The next is to introduce a shepherd and a few dogs; and then to cover the mountains with flocks of wild, coarse-woolled [sic], and savage animals [Cheviot sheep] which seldom see their shepherd or are benefited by his care."
Along with discovery that sheep could live in the Highlands came the discovery that they could make a landlord many times more money than his tenants paid him in rents. The result was waves of mass evictions of Highlanders from their land, and these evictions did not end until after the end of the Crimean War. Some areas were emptied to the last man, including Sutherland and the lands of Clan Chisholm . The effects of the evictions are twofold, as they apply to the Highlanders’ image. Many Highlanders emigrated to the colonies (especially Canada). Between 1763 and 1775, more than 20,000 Highlanders left for the Colonies, including one year which saw 54 emigrant ships sail from western Scotland . Many of those who did not emigrate were forced, for lack of food and shelter, to go south to the cities and work of the Lowlands. During later years, the evictions were coupled with famines (the great potato famine of Ireland struck Scotland as well during the 1840s), and many ex-tenants died of exposure or starvation. The practical result of this was the first ever merging of the Highlanders and Lowlanders into one Scottish culture, thanks to the infusion of Highlanders into the Lowlands. At the same time that the Highlanders were dying and emigrating, the English popular culture was waxing nostalgic about their greatness.
Meanwhile, the shepherds and the Lairds who replaced their tenants with sheep were making a handsome profit in the Highlands, even if they were neglecting its inhabitants in the process. This assisted in changing the English image of Scotland from a backwards neighbor to a prosperous partner. Between 1738 and 1765, Scotland’s share of the United Kingdom’s imported goods rose from only 10% to 40% . Linen production in Scotland quadrupled from the period of 1736-1740 and 1768-1772. Perhaps the greatest indicator of Scotland’s growing economic strength is the fact that banking assets per head in Scotland rose more than 25-fold between 1744 and 1802, from £0.27 to £7.46 . As the Scots became more modern industrially and agriculturally, they became less and less foreign to the English. Instead of being the birthplace of revolts, the Highlands became a place of opportunity to English entrepreneurs.

Conclusion - The Threat from the Highlands
The image of the Highlanders in the 1740s and 1750s was based very little on fact and very much on fear. The Disarming Act began the process of diluting and ultimately removing this fear. The perceived danger of an invasion of “wild savage Highlanders” is the ultimate root of the English view of the Highlands. Clearly this fear was at its greatest immediately after the Jacobites nearly sacked London in 1745. Gradually, the fear dissolved away, thanks to a combination of many factors, the three most influential being Scottish units on the English army, the Romantic interest in the Highlands’ literature and landscape, and the economic changes in Scotland. All these changes occurred simultaneously, and their effect was tremendous. The Highlanders were transformed from traitorous rebels threatening the very sanctuary of the crown to the Glorious and valiant defender of the Crown’s presence across the globe. Their ancestors were transformed in the minds of the English from savage, hovel-dwelling barbarians to noble warriors and poets. And finally, their homeland was no longer a Hellish northern hinterland, it was a place of wild and beautiful landscapes.
Each of these changes reduced the perceived threat of another Highland invasion of England. Obviously, any group who bravely defended the Crown far from their own homeland could not be a threat. In the same way, a noble and beautiful country whose traditions were rooted in great poetry was seen as far less a threat than a barbarous hinterland. And, of course, a people who had a profitable economic relationship with England (as the Scots began to have in the late 1700s and early 1800s) would never invade England. The irony of the situation is that the actual change in view was, for all its huge impacts, very slight – merely a slightly different perspective on the exact same traits and qualities.

-Ian

Ian,
That was a good article, but I have one criticism; you make the common mistake of using England and Britain interchangably. For example, there were never Highland regiments in the English army, but there were and still are Highland regiments in the British Army. The Highlands, or indeed Scotland, were not brought under English law by the Acts of Union; Scotland has always maintained a separate legal system. The Stuarts had been on the English throne since 1603 when Queen Elizabeth of England died childless until the death of Queen Anne almost a century later.

Other than these points, well done. Please post some more.